Hittites created one of the earliest durable systems of regulated warfare. Their treaties, laws, and ritual obligations demonstrate that humanitarian norms emerged independently across multiple civilisations, argues @rorycox.bsky.social . lieber.westpoint.edu/hittite-laws...

Today’s era of rapid scientific breakthroughs, potential dual-use technologies, and shifting geopolitical landscapes calls for strengthening the #BWC to allow it to effectively respond to current challenges, argues Barry de Vries. lieber.westpoint.edu/biological-w...

Laws of Yesterday’s Wars Vol 4: From Mesopotamia to Somalia draws together 6 chapters spanning the ancient Near East & sub-Saharan Africa. As Sam White explains, the result is a collection that speaks to lived experience of communities & doctrines they produced. lieber.westpoint.edu/laws-of-yest...

For #AWS the central issue is not whether IHL “applies". The question is whether States will do what arms control has required before: set durable, weapon-specific constraints before battlefield practice hardens into a new baseline, argues Natalie Nunn. lieber.westpoint.edu/how-lessons-...

How does international law conceptualize mass #deprivation? In the ICJ’s 2025 AO on Israel’s obligations in the OPT, Tamar Luster argues that reliance on extreme factual indicators turns an early-warning standard into a post-catastrophe label. lieber.westpoint.edu/mass-depriva...

The ICJ’s recent jurisprudence has ushered in a new dual régime of #occupation: Hague Occupation, for “on-the-spot” control; and Geneva Occupation, for “activities” control. Robert Kolb explains how each one of these limbs complements the other. lieber.westpoint.edu/evolving-bel...

Ronald Alcala discusses the concept of #outlawry in armed conflict & examines whether Russian & Ukrainian rewards programs that offer monetary & other incentives for the killing of enemy soldiers are a form of prohibited outlawry under international law. lieber.westpoint.edu/gamifying-wa...

At the heart of the debate over whether #jusinbello and #jusadbellum should be kept absolutely separate is the underlying question of #LOAC’s role vis-à-vis a sovereign’s duty, argues Thomas Wheatley. lieber.westpoint.edu/moral-disord...

Although the 1907 #HagueRegulations represented the first reasonably general codification of the law of war in modern times, they left multiple questions unresolved. In his post, Robert Kolb analyzes the lexical imperfections of the Hague Regulations. lieber.westpoint.edu/lexical-impe...

Sabotage, while legally ill-defined, remains a feature of #armedconflict in the 21st century. Kenneth Watkin argues that #sabotage requires a sufficiently broad definition that reflects the complexity of such operations. lieber.westpoint.edu/intelligence...

Does the law of neutrality apply when a situation of #occupation arises? Benjamin Meret addresses the threshold for application of neutrality, categorizes a range of situations involving belligerent occupation & assesses whether neutrality applies to each. lieber.westpoint.edu/law-neutrali...

Recently, a workshop organized by Army Cyber Institute and the Netherlands Defense Academy highlighted rapid developments in #AI-enabled #cyberattacks and examined the challenges they pose to the application of international legal obligations in armed conflicts. lieber.westpoint.edu/impact-ai-en...

Within every system of law there are open & closed legal sub-systems. In the context of #war, we find both systems, pitching the #jusadbellum against the #jusinbello with differing rules concerning freedom of action, argues Robert Kolb. lieber.westpoint.edu/open-closed-...

In 2026, States will continue to affirm that IHL applies to #cyberops conducted during #armedconflict. Yet its practical influence on State behavior is likely to be limited as cyber ops become more strategic & more deeply integrated with AI, argues Jeffrey Biller lieber.westpoint.edu/law-of-cyber...

It is a well-observed truism that despite early decades of human rights jurisprudence from the #ECtHR addressing ongoing #armedconflicts, the Court has studiously avoided opining on the interface of #humanrights and #IHL. lieber.westpoint.edu/early-interf...

Data poisoning will continue to occur in peace & in war. During #armedconflict, #IHL regulates its effects. But the decisive legal challenge lies earlier, argues Sam White. lieber.westpoint.edu/poisoned-wel...

#Reciprocity can signify recognition; the basic acknowledgement that an adversary is a moral and legal subject capable of #restraint and that mutual commitment sustains the legitimacy of law, argues Bryan Peeler. lieber.westpoint.edu/reciprocity-...

As States begin to regard #outerspace as a war-fighting domain, #Japan has followed suit. Takahiro Abe focuses in his post on Japanese approach to space regulations and examines the meaning of bilateral and multi-lateral defense of outer space. lieber.westpoint.edu/japanese-per...

2025 brought a stress-testing of #LOAC & the int. community. It was a sustained inquiry into whether the laws of war can meaningfully constrain violence in an age of strategic competition, technological acceleration & protracted conflict & if so, how. lieber.westpoint.edu/year-in-revi...

Robert Kolb analyzes in his post the doctrine of #doublequalification and concludes that it is neither necessary nor balanced. It does not address a dangerous gap in international humanitarian law. lieber.westpoint.edu/double-quali...

The U.S. Air Force’s & Anduril’s ambitious wingman program, Fury, has already lifted off. Davit Khachatryan analyzes the possibility that attritable autonomous wingmen could support more rigorous precautionary practice. lieber.westpoint.edu/clarity-cons...

As we approach the end of 2025, Articles of War will be welcoming several exciting changes to our editorial board. Please join us in congratulating Prof. Jennifer Maddocks on her new appointment. lieber.westpoint.edu/articles-of-...

It is often claimed that #IHL is in its greatest part #peremptory, or at least a type of regulation akin to #juscogens and protected in the same way as peremptory law. Robert Kolb critically reviews the arguments advanced to buttress this position. lieber.westpoint.edu/internationa...

The final part of Sean Watts’s post recounts an often-forgotten episode in the history of post-conflict #POW #repatriation and offers concluding thoughts on efforts to further refine and harmonize views on this critical law of war protective regime. lieber.westpoint.edu/prisoner-war...

A challenging situation attaches to the question of #involuntary post-war repatriations of prisoners of war. In Part II of his post, Sean Watts addresses the difficult and close question of involuntary #repatriation of #POWs. lieber.westpoint.edu/prisoner-war...

POW #repatriations have long been contentious post-war affairs. Sean Watts explores the law of war applicable to post-conflict #POW repatriation. The first post outlines the legal framework & explores reciprocity as a fault line behind many repatriation disputes. lieber.westpoint.edu/prisoner-war...

Legal reviews of #AI systems pose significant legal & practical challenges due to their technical & operational features. Tobias Vestner & Nicolo Borgesano explore how insights from legal reviews of #cyberweapons can inform those of AI systems/AI-enabled weapons. lieber.westpoint.edu/legal-review...

This past September, the 4th Annual Symposium on Cyber & International Law took place. Emily Bobenrieth provides an overview of a panel discussion, which explored whether #AI-enabled cyber ops in armed conflict present uncertainty in application of #LOAC. lieber.westpoint.edu/gaps-seams-l...

Myanmar’s civil unrest is traditionally characterised as a #NIAC. Su Myat Thwe and @rosalauterbach.bsky.social examine the challenges to #LOAC’s authority and application that the conflict poses and explain where the conflict currently stands. lieber.westpoint.edu/anything-oth...

On October 28, Ukrainian “Sea Baby drones” attacked two Gambian-flagged #oiltankers, the Kairos and Virat, presumably part of Russia’s #shadowfleet. Wolff Heintschel von Heinegg discusses contributions to enemy’s war-sustaining efforts and lawful targets. lieber.westpoint.edu/ukrainian-at...

IHL prohibits the misuse of certain indicators, such as the ICRC’s distinctive emblems. Jonathan Kwik and Adriaan Wiese ask in their post whether #AI could independently learn that abusing IHL’s protective indicators is its most optimal course-of-action. lieber.westpoint.edu/can-ai-teach...

The principle on #boobytraps is timeless: war should not rely on treachery disguised as trust. If #cyberspace has blurred the front lines, then the law must learn to travel across them too, argues Samuel White. lieber.westpoint.edu/tripwires-tr...

Raphaël van Steenberghe examines in his post #Israel’s status as an #occupyingpower in the #Gaza Strip in relation to all the obligations identified by the @CIJ_ICJ in its latest advisory opinion on the Occupied #Palestinian Territory. lieber.westpoint.edu/qualifying-i...

“Ukraine Symposium: International Law in the Crucible of Conflict – Vol. 2” will be available soon from the West Point Press! Read more here: press.westpoint.edu/books/ukrain...

23 States have appended some declarations when ratifying or acceding to the 1949 #GenevaConventions. Not all these declarations embody #reservations. Robert Kolb catalogues and categorizes statements, understandings, and reservations by States to the GCs. lieber.westpoint.edu/reservations...

In his concluding post, @francescoromani.bsky.social reflects on wider #policy implications of formalizing #belligerent #reprisals under the #reciprocity framework instead of the enforcement one. lieber.westpoint.edu/belligerent-...

Francesco Romani’s reconceptualization of belligerent #reprisals is stimulating and provocative. Yet, as with all attempts to reframe foundational concepts, it raises difficult questions, argues Veronika Bílková. lieber.westpoint.edu/enforcement-...

. #Proportionality is one of the most widely used concepts in international law. However, its recurrence across different legal regimes should not lead to the mistaken assumption that it carries a single meaning, argues @mikeschmitt.bsky.social. lieber.westpoint.edu/parsing-prop...

Stuart Casey-Maslen considers in his post the extent to which #weapons whose use is illegal under #LOAC may be used in belligerent #reprisals. lieber.westpoint.edu/reprisals-wi...

Recent occurrences in on-going #armedconflicts have brought back into international legal discourse the notion of #belligerent #reprisals. @francescoromani.bsky.social introduces the Belligerent Reprisals Series. lieber.westpoint.edu/belligerent-...

In late October 2025, @CIJ_ICJ delivered another #AO in relation to Palestine. @jemtseva.bsky.social discusses in her post the “indispensable character” of the #UN and the provision of #humanitarianaid by new types of private actors. lieber.westpoint.edu/how-indispen...

The Italian National Cybersecurity Agency plays a critical role in the defense of Italy’s digital domain. Adriano Iaria examines whether its infrastructure and objects could be legitimate military objectives in the event of an armed conflict. lieber.westpoint.edu/military-obj...

Bryan Peeler asks in his post why does #reciprocity refuse to die. He argues that reciprocity endures as the hidden grammar of compliance and legitimacy in #warfare despite more than a century of legal reform seeking to purge it from #IHL. lieber.westpoint.edu/why-reciproc...

The #Rousseau-#Portalis Doctrine has had a significant impact on the law of #war over the past two centuries. Dan Stigall provides a brief background on Rousseau & Portalis, their views on the law of nations & their ideas that form the substance of the Doctrine. lieber.westpoint.edu/rousseau-por...

If a #treaty is silent on the right to make #reservations, then according to the VCLT, the principal consideration is the compatibility of the reservation in question with the object and purpose of the treaty. Robert Kolb proposes a typology of reservations. lieber.westpoint.edu/typology-res...

How is customary #IHL shaped? Vincent Widdig argues that, while the #ICRC Customary IHL Study remains a valuable baseline, its #methodology for identifying customary IHL requires both a deepening and a widening of the scope in view of modern #warfare. lieber.westpoint.edu/getting-righ...

The #ICRC Customary #IHL Study is a reference point for IHL rules that have attained the status of customary law. Mina Radončić explores the possibility that the Study could equally explicitly signal issues where State practice is not consistent enough. lieber.westpoint.edu/non-finito-s...

The introduction to the ICRC Study on Customary #IHL envisages the possibility of a future update. One of the proposals mentioned is the codification of the #Martensclause. Paulina Rob explores the role of the Martens clause in such an endeavour. lieber.westpoint.edu/study-2-0-fe...

Should #ICL shape the rules that bind States in war? Tom Gal explores the use of ICL jurisprudence in identifying customary #IHL and concludes that a “balanced approach” can be useful for interpretation but not for identification of #custom. lieber.westpoint.edu/question-met...