loading . . . Gender Differences in Episodic Memory Among Middle-Aged and Older Adults in Four Middle-Income Countries - Population Research and Policy Review Episodic memory is an important indicator of cognitive function. Women generally report better episodic memory than men later in life, with education having a notable role in this relationship. However, this phenomenon has seen limited cross-national exploration across age groups in middle-income countries (MICs) that have with varied forms of gender inequality and education access. We used cross-sectional, nationally representative data (2015–2019) from the Health and Retirement Study—International Network of Studies (HRS-INS) to examine episodic memory gender differences among middle-aged (50–64) and older adults (65 +) in India, China, Brazil, and Mexico (N = 89,553). We employed country- and age group-specific linear regression models that progressively adjust for age, place (i.e., urban/rural residence), education, comorbidities, and social ties (i.e., marital status; household size). In India, men had better episodic in both age groups, which was significantly accounted for by education, while social ties only had a significant role among older adults. In China, men had better episodic in both age groups and education was a non-significant mediator. In Brazil, women only had better episodic memory in middle age, while place and social ties had a small, non-significant role. In Mexico, women consistently reported better episodic memory in both age groups, while education non-significantly suppressed this relationship. Overall, gender differences in episodic memory, which were better for women in middle age, were largely shaped by education and social ties. These findings relate to unique national contexts and structural needs throughout MICs. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11113-026-10009-3
